How We Got The New Testament

From the beginning, Christianity was a missionary enterprise seeking to win converts, and to answers the objections of its opponents.  And in preaching the Gospel, the Apostles and others had to provide historically reliable presentations and interpretations of the life and ministry of Jesus, along with their giving careful instruction in doctrine and ethics.  This was done through letters, the first of which was The Letter of James (c. 44 A.D.)  written to comfort Jewish Christians persecuted and driven out of Judaea (cf. Acts 11:19), and then through the four gospels, the first of which was the Gospel of Mark, written by John Mark, an associate of the Apostle Peter, in Rome (c. 50 A.D.).  These documents, along with the letters of Paul, Luke and Acts, 1 Peter, and Hebrews, were written in a form of Greek script used by professional scribes for legal and literary works, which means that from the onset both the authors and readers recognized these documents as inspired literature that was to be prized and preserved, as well as read, by the Christian churches. 

Original Compostion and Distribution of the NT Writings

During the period 95 A.D. to 110 A.D., the NT documents were first copied and circulated individually, then in a collection of the Four gospels and Acts, a collection of Paul's letters and Hebrews, a collection of General Letters (James through Jude) and then Revelation as a separate book.  In Syria, where heretical works were first forged in Peter's name and even utilized selections of 2 Peter itself, 2 Peter was disputed as authentic for a long time. (By the end of the third century, when all doubts were finally removed, the Syrian churches accepted 2 Peter as both authentic and canonical.)   However, when the Post-Apostolic writers, such as Clement of Rome, Ignatius, and Polycarp, cite authorities for their teaching, in addition to the OT, they refer to 23 out of the 27 books that now form the NT.  (The four excluded are 2 Peter, 1 John, 2 John, 3 John, though it is not clear from their writings why this is so.)

As for the canonization of the New Testament texts, this process actually began with the Apostles themselves.  Long before they were dead, false teachers arose, claiming their erroneous doctrines were only repeating what the Apostles themselves had taught in oral form or in letters.  Paul addresses this issue in 2 Thessalonians 2:1-5, and then at the end of this letter says:  "Now may the Lord of peace himself give you peace at all times and in every way.  The Lord be with you all.  I, Paul, write this greeting in my own hand, which is the distinguishing mark in all my letters.  This is how I write" (2 Thess. 3:16-17, NIV).  This verse was a reminder that Paul's practice was first to dictate his letters to an associate who was trained as a scribe, then have the associate read back the rough draft for any further additions or corrections, then once put in its final form and approved, he would sign his letter with a personal, final greeting, written in large letters (cf. Gal. 6:11-18).  This was his seal that the document was both authentic and authoritative, and that it was to be accepted as such by the Christian congregations that received it (cf. 1 Cor. 14:36-38). 

In addition, we have Paul authenticating Luke's writings as inspired, authoritative Scripture, and Peter authenticating Paul's letters as inspired authoritative Scripture.  In 1 Timothy 5:17-21, Paul gives instructions regarding the treatment of elders, both those who are faithful in caring for the church and in teaching God's Word and also regarding those who are not.  Now when he quotes the basis for his teaching, he writes:  "For Scripture says, 'Do not muzzle an ox while it is treading out the grain,' and 'The worker deserves his wages'" (1 Tim. 5:18, NIV).  The first quote is from Deuteronomy 25:4 and the second is from Luke 10:7. Here is Paul, around 62 A.D., roughly two years before his second and final imprisonment in Rome, quoting from the writings of his friend and associate Luke, as equally inspired and authoritative as the writings of Moses! 

Then in Rome, just before the outbreak of the persecution by Nero (c. 64 A.D.), Peter knew that the end of his life and ministry was near and so wrote his last will and testament to Christians who knew both him and Paul.  In this letter, Peter says this concerning Paul and his writings:  "Bear in mind that our Lord's patience means salvation, just as our dear brother Paul also wrote you with the wisdom God gave him.  He writes the same way in all his letters, speaking in them of these matters.  His letters contain some things that are hard to understand, which ignorant and unstable people distort, as they do the other Scriptures, to their own destruction" (2 Pet. 3:15-16, NIV, italics mine).  Not only does Peter affirm Paul wrote with divine wisdom and authority in general, but that his letters were as fully inspired and authoritative as the OT itself!  So early on, the Apostles and their associates knew that they were writing under the divine inspiration of the Holy Spirit, and that several of the books they had written were on the same level of authority as the OT.

All the books which now form the complete NT canon we possess, were written and put into circulation by no later than 100 A.D. This has been confirmed by the many NT quotations and allusions found in the writings of Early Christian writers such as Clement, Bishop of Rome (c. 60-95 A.D.); Ignatius, Bishop of Antioch (c.70-115 A.D.); Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna (c. 75-150 A.D.); Justin Martyr, a Christian philosopher and apologist who first ministered in Syria, then later established an academy in Rome (c. 90-150 A.D.); and Irenaeus, Bishop of Lyons (c. 130-200 A.D.), who wrote the book Against All Heresies.  The evidence from the writings of these Early Church writers, after careful examination, demonstrates three things:

1.  In the geographical areas where they lived and ministered, the Four Gospels, Acts, Paul's 12 Letters, Hebrews and Revelation were already recognized as authoritative Scripture, whereas some of the NT letters (e.g. 2 Peter and Jude), were either unknown or disputed.

2.  The Greek text-types they used were an early form of either the Western Text, or of the Alexandrian Text.  And then the Caesarean Text, a mixture of the Western and Alexandrian Texts, appeared and began to be used in the early third century A.D.  

3.   No early, unambiguous Byzantine Text can be detected in the works of any Christian writers before 280 A.D.   (The Old Antichian Text, a edited combination of the Western and Caesarean Texts, and the precursor of the Byzantine Text, was taken to Constantinople around 300 A.D. prior to the Great Persecution, 303-313 A.D.)  This is historical fact, based on all the evidence we now possess.

The Rise of Marcion and the Roman Church's Confirmation of the NT Canon

Up until 140 A.D., there was no great dispute as to what were canonical and non-canonical books; it was pretty much taken for granted that everyone knew the difference between the apostolic and non-apostolic writings.  But with the appearance of the first great heretical teacher, Marcion, this complacency towards the canon of the New Testament came to an end.  Marcion taught that the God of the OT was vengeful and evil, since he created the material universe and appeared to care solely for the Jews, his "chosen people."  But the God of Jesus, the Ultimate, One Spiritual Being, was a God of grace and love towards all peoples.  Therefore, he rejected the OT as being any part of the Scriptures to be used by Christians, and threw out everything in the NT that smacked of "Jewishness," leaving Luke and Paul's Letters as his Bible, which he called The Gospel and the Apostle.  And then he went about Asia Minor and Italy, using his wealth as an import merchant to establish churches that would promote his form of Christianity, using his writings and his expunged version of the NT as the basis of their belief and practice.

 As a result of Marcion’s teaching and activities, the orthodox churches in Italy, following Rome's lead, came up with the first list of the NT canon, which includes most of the current NT books and rejects all Marcionite forgeries.  A damaged copy of this list, known as the Muratorian Fragment (named after the scholar who discovered it and printed it 1740), begins with a reference to Luke as "the Third Gospel," then to John as the testimony of the Beloved Disciple, then to Acts as "a record of all the apostles’ acts" contra Marcion, then to Paul's letters, Hebrews, 1 and 2 John, Revelation, and 2 Peter.  After again condemning Marcion, it states that while the Shepherd of Hermas is worthy to be read during church services, it is not to be counted among the apostolic writings.  So after this episode with Marcion, in the Western church there was no longer any doubt as to what were and were not authoritative, apostolic writings.

 Development of Threefold Test for Canonicity

In addition to this early Roman list of the NT canon, Irenaeus states in Against All Heresies that it was during this same time that a threefold test was developed to help churches distinguish apostolic from non-apostolic writings that were being circulated:

1.  Apostolic Origin.  Was the book in question known to be the authentic work of the Apostles and their closest associates?  Was it known to have the approval of the Apostles and their associates?  If it was, it was to be regarded as canonical and was to be read in the churches.

2.  Ecclesiastical Reception and Use.  In the churches founded by the Apostles and their associates, was this book both known and regularly used in preaching and teaching during congregational worship?  If it was, it was to be read and accepted by all as canonical Scripture.

3.  Consistency of Doctrine.  Did the book agree with that form or pattern of doctrine summarized in "The Rule of Faith," or "The Tradition," which had been passed on by the Apostles?  If it did, then it was to be accepted and read as canonical Scripture in all the churches.  Now, when you read what Irenaeus says regarding this apostolic tradition, it appears to have been an early creed that in many ways anticipated the Nicene Creed of 325 A.D.  Therefore, any book being considered as a possible candidate for addition to a church's library of authoritative books had to pass all three tests or it was excluded.  During the time between 200 A.D. and 313 A.D., despite the increasing flood of heretical books and the persecution by Emperor Diocletian, these tests continued to be applied. 

Our Conclusion Regarding the NT Canon

So by the time of the Council of Carthage in 397 A.D., the Disputed Books (James, 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, Jude) were seen by all as passing mustard and worthy of full canonical status.  So I would argue that at this time that the NT Canon received full confirmation as being apostolic and authoritative, not sanctioned and made authoritative by Church decree, as some Catholic apologists would try to persuade us.  For no NT book was ever accepted as canonical that was not apostolically authentic and authoritative.  F. F. Bruce states it best:

What is particularly important to notice is that the New Testament canon was not demarcated by the arbitrary decree of any Church Council.  When at last a Church Council—the Synod of Hippo in A.D. 393—listed the twenty-seven books of the New Testament, it did not confer upon them any authority which they did not already possess, but simply recorded their previously established canonicity.  As Dr. Foakes-Jackson puts it:  “The Church assuredly did not make the New Testament; the two grew up together.”  Divine authority is by its very nature self-evidencing; and one of the profoundest doctrines recovered by the Reformers is the doctrine of the inward witness of the Holy Spirit, by which testimony is borne within the believer’s heart to the divine character of Holy Scripture.  This witness is not confined to the individual believer, but is also accessible to the believing community; and there is no better example of its operation than in the recognition by the members of the Early Church of the books which were given by inspiration of God to stand alongside the books of the Old Covenant, the Bible of Christ and his apostles, and with them to make up the Written Word of  God (cf. "The Canon of Scripture," The Books and the Parchments, 2nd Edition, pp. 103-104).

Introduction to "Frank Geis--On Things That Matter"

Welcome to On Things That Matter, a place for reflection on and discussion of various topics from a Christian perspective.  It occurred to me that before composing and posting any other blogs on various topics of common interest to this author and any potential readers, it might be wise to layout the foundation, scope, and aims of Barnabas Hall.  First, I will explain the foundation of this blog, its scope, and its main aims. And then I will list some basic guidelines for how future discussions and responses to be conducted at this site.

Foundation of "On Things That Matter"

There is a threefold foundation for this blog that is personal, doctrinal, and ethical.  First, it is personal, in that it is rooted in my own Spirit-gifting and calling as a representative and spokesman for God.  "For we are God's masterpiece.  He has created us anew in Christ Jesus, so we can do the good works he planned for us long ago" (Eph. 2:10, my rendering).  God has called me, gifted me, and trained me, like Barnabas my role model, to be a teacher, counselor, encourager, and equipper of God's people.  And like Barnabas and Paul before me, I also am committed to proclaiming, defending, and confirming the Gospel Faith with all the wisdom, skill, and ability the Holy Spirit has given me.  Moreover, my Spirit-gifting and calling involves a commitment to persistently and faithfully explain and apply the intellectual, moral, and socio-political implications of the Gospel, as best as I can, for today's issues and concerns.  

Second, the doctrinal foundation, or basis, from which I will carry on my discussions here will generally be that of orthodox, Evangelical Protestantism.  And as to the specific and essential Christian doctrines honored and upheld on this site, they are as follows:

Statement of Faith

1. We believe the Bible is the inspired Word of God, is absolutely trustworthy in all that it truly affirms, and is the final authority for all Christian belief and practice.
2. We believe in the One Triune God, the LORD God Almighty, eternally existing as Three Equal Persons--Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.  Each Person is distinct and yet equal, fully sharing in divine honor, glory, worship, power, authority, rule, and rank--such that no Person has eternal primacy over the Others.
3. We believe in the full deity and humanity of Jesus, and in his atoning death; in his liberating and life-transforming resurrection; and in the reality of his present and yet to come kingdom of truth, justice, righteousness, and peace in the Church and in the coming New Heavens and New Earth.
4. We believe that eternal salvation and restored relationships are possible through faith in Jesus Christ, who died for us, rose from the dead in full victory over sin, death and the powers of darkness.  And this salvation, both present and future in its scope, is offered to all people.
5. We believe in the work of the Holy Spirit in salvation, and in his powerful sanctifying and transforming presence in the life of all believers.  And we also believe that the Holy Spirit--in full and mutual agreement with both the Father and the Son--calls, gifts, equips and empowers people for ministry and leadership in the church and larger society regardless of their ethnicity, race, gender, or social status.
6. We believe all human beings are made in the image of God, and are to reflect that image in the church, home, and larger society.  Therefore, as those made in God's image, men and women are to develop and use their God-given gifts for the good of family, church, and society.

                                                               Core Values

      1.  Everything we say and do must flow out of love, gratitude, and reverence towards God; and
           out of love, respect and a desire to promote the total well-being of our fellow human beings,
           male and female, who are made in his image.
      2.  Christians are called to mutual submission, love, and service.
      3.  All Christians, according to the NT, have equal authority and equal responsibility to exercise
           their God-given gifts and talents for the common good of the Church and Society without
           regard to gender, ethnicity, class, or the limits of culturally-defined roles.
      4.  God's design for human community and intimate relationships embraces celibate singleness,
           faithful heterosexual marriage, and loving families.
      5.  All Christians, both men and women as God's kingdom ambassadors, as mandated by
           Scripture and as enabled by the Holy Spirit, must oppose all injustice and wickedness while
           at the same time promoting truth, justice, and righteousness.

While some readers might think the above doctrinal statement is too narrow, others will think it too broad.  That is because, for some, since it says nothing specific about church polity, church offices, baptism, or eschatology, it appears too broadminded   For others, its statements about Scripture's inspiration and authority, about redemption and reconciliation resting solely in Christ's death and resurrection, about the Spirit's calling and gifting both men and women for Christian ministry and leadership, the "now and not yet" nature of God's kingdom may appear as too narrow.  Nonetheless, these statements best the express what I regard as the essentials of  "the faith that God has entrusted once for all time to his holy people" (Jude 3, NLT). 

Now I should say that my own roots are in the Reformed and Baptist tradition, and so I do have some strong personal convictions about certain doctrinal issues, which I have no reluctance to discuss when appropriate and when it can be done so without any rancor.  However, I am not obsessed with what Alister McGrath has, in his The Passionate Intellect, described as "winning the battle for mental correctness" and not carrying about any other aspect of the Christian faith.   Nor am I committed to being an entrenched intellectualist, "a rigid, argumentative, critical Christian" who champions his particular brand of Christianity as the only valid expression of orthodox Christianity.  The fundamental rule to be followed in this blog as regards both the discussions and accompanying responses is summed up in the rule laid down long ago by St. Augustine:  In necessarius unitas, in dubiis libertas, in omnibus caritas, "In essentials, unity; in doubtful matters, liberty; (but) in all things, charity (love)."

Content and Style of Blog Discussion

As for the topical content of the blog, I hope to discuss, in addition to theological and ethical issues, the lessons we can learn for today from key historical persons and events in Church history; significant Christian and non-Christian philosophers, artists, and writers.  And though I may introduce various topics, I hope to carry on discussions with my readers that will be intellectually stimulating, morally enhancing, and spiritually uplifting, even when there is some disagreement.  After all, I don't expect uniformity of opinion on some of these topics.  That is not reasonable, given the diversity existing among Christians due to their denominational, educational, and socio-economic backgrounds.  That is why I will seek, throughout our discussions, to embrace and maintain an essential and generous Christian orthodoxy that accommodates our disagreements within the context of the greater agreements that bind us all together in the Lord Jesus Christ.

However, I do expect those who visit this website to be civil in expressing their viewpoint; to be willing to engage in meaningfull dialogue where different opinions are seriously and respectively considered; that any arguments that are presented be solidly based on Scripture, historical and scientific fact, and be logically consistent and coherent, as much as is possible, in their development.  "Don't use foul or abusive language. Let everything you say be good and helpful, so that your words will be an encouragement to those who hear them" (Eph. 4:29, NLT).